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1399 lines
73 KiB
TeX
1399 lines
73 KiB
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\JournalInfo{Invited Review for Nature Astronomy} % Journal information
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\Archive{} % Additional notes (e.g. copyright, DOI, review/research article)
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\PaperTitle{Impact of supermassive black hole growth on star formation} % Article title
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\Authors{C. M. Harrison\textsuperscript{1,2}*} % Authors
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\affiliation{\textsuperscript{1}\textit{European Southern Observatory, Karl-Schwarzschild-Str. 2, 85748
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Garching b. M{\"u}nchen, Germany}} % Author affiliation
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\affiliation{\textsuperscript{2}\textit{Centre for Extragalactic Astronomy, Durham University, South
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Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, U.K.}} % Author affiliation
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\affiliation{*ESO Fellow; c.m.harrison@mail.com} % Corresponding author
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\Abstract{Supermassive black holes are found at the centre of massive
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galaxies. During the growth of these black holes they light up to become visible as active galactic nuclei (AGN) and release extraordinary amounts of energy across the electromagnetic spectrum. This energy is widely believed to regulate the rate of star formation in the black holes' host galaxies via so-called ``AGN feedback''. However, the details of how and when this occurs remains uncertain from both an observational and theoretical perspective. I review some of the observational results and discuss possible observational signatures of the impact of super-massive black hole growth on star formation.}
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\section*{Introduction} % The \section*{} command stops section numbering
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\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Introduction} % Adds this section to the table of contents
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The discovery that all massive galaxies host a central super-massive
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black hole rates among the most momentous in modern astronomy. These
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black holes, with masses ranging from hundreds of thousands to
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billions of times that of our Sun
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($\approx$10$^{5}$--10$^{10}$\,M$_{\odot}$), primarily grow through
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periods of radiatively-efficient accretion of gas when they consequently become visible as
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AGN\cite{Soltan82,Marconi04}. Historically AGN were considered rare but fascinating objects to study in their own right, yet over the
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last two decades these phenomena have moved to the fore-front of galaxy
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evolution research. This is partly due to a number of remarkable
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observations that show that black hole masses are tightly correlated
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with host-galaxy properties, despite a difference of several orders of
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magnitude in physical size scales\cite{Kormendy13}. However, arguably the most influential factor
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in the explosion of interest in AGN are the results from galaxy
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evolution models.
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Most galaxy formation models require AGN to inject energy or momentum
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into the surrounding gas (see Box~1) in the most massive galaxies
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(i.e., with stellar masses $M_{\rm stellar}\gtrsim10^{10}$\,M$_{\odot}$) in order to reproduce many key observables of galaxy populations and
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intergalactic
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material\cite{Valageas99,Croton06,Somerville08,Ciotti10,Gaspari11,Dubois13,Vogelsberger14,Crain15,King15}
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(Fig.~1). These observables include: the ``steep'' relationship between X-ray luminosity and X-ray temperature observed for the gas in the
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intra-cluster medium within groups and clusters\cite{Markevitch98}; the ``low'' rate
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of gas cooling in galaxy clusters\cite{Fabian94}; the inefficiency of star
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formation in the most massive galaxy haloes\cite{Behroozi13}
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(Fig.~1); the tight relationships between black hole
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masses and galaxy bulge properties\cite{Kormendy13} and the
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formation of quiescent bulge-dominated massive ``red'' galaxies that
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are no longer forming stars at significant levels\cite{Strateva01}.
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\begin{figure}
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\centerline{\psfig{figure=fig1.ps,width=0.35\textwidth,angle=90}}
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\fontfamily{phv}\selectfont{\small Figure~1 | The ratio of stellar mass to halo mass as a function of halo mass for three different runs of a
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simulation\protect\cite{Somerville08} and for the semi-empirical
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relationship\protect\cite{Moster13}.} {\footnotesize The shaded region shows the 16th and
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84th percentiles of the fiducial model that includes energy injection from
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AGN and star formation (SF). The right y-axis shows the efficiency
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for turning baryons into stars ($M_{\rm stellar} /[f_{b}*M_{\rm
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halo}]$; where the factor of $f_{b}=0.17$ is the cosmological baryon
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fraction). The impact of including star formation feedback in the
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model is to reduce the efficiency of converting baryons into stars in
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low mass haloes. For massive haloes, energy injection
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from AGN is required in order to reduce these efficiencies. Such
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effects are required in most models in order to reproduce many
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observable properties of the
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massive galaxy population.}
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\end{figure}
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\begin{figure*}
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\noindent\fcolorbox{white}{colorbox}{%
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\begin{minipage}{0.5\textwidth}
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\centerline{\psfig{figure=box1.ps,width=\textwidth,angle=0}}
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\end{minipage}
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\begin{minipage}{0.5\textwidth}
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\fontfamily{phv}\selectfont{\small Box~1 | A schematic diagram to illustrate the relationships
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between fuel supply, galaxy growth and black hole
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growth.}
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\vspace{0.1cm}\noindent {\footnotesize Both AGN and star formation are fuelled by cold gas that originates from a shared
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(potentially hot) {\em gas reservoir} inside the galaxy halo. This
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gas reservoir can be fed by
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gas-rich mergers, by recycled material from internal galactic
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processes and by accretion of gas from intergalactic material. The amount of gas and the ability for this gas to cool determines the
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amount of usable fuel that can be used for {\em feeding} black hole
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growth and star formation. In the case of providing the fuel for black hole growth the
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material has the additional challenge of losing sufficient angular momentum to reach the inner
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sub-parsec region of the galaxy. Both processes are known to inject energy and momentum (via
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radiation, winds and jets) that can reduce the availability of
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usable fuel through ionising, heating, shocking or expelling material, and hence provide self-regulatory
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{\em feedback} mechanisms. A key component of most
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galaxy formation models is that these two processes can also have a
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positive or negative {\em impact} on the usable fuel supply for the other process (black and grey arrows). The focus of
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this article is observational results on the
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impact of black hole growth on star formation.
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}
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\end{minipage}
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}%
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\end{figure*}
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AGN are an attractive solution in models to supply the energy required to
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explain the observations. By releasing $\approx$10\% of the rest-mass energy of accreted material, they are phenomenal energy
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sources\cite{Shapiro83,Marconi04}. For example, during the formation of a $\approx$10$^{8}$\,M$_{\odot}$ black
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hole $\approx$10$^{54}$\,Joules of energy is released, which is
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two-to-three orders of magnitude more energy than the binding energy
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of a typical host galactic bulge and is
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comparable to the thermal energy of the gas in the
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galaxy halo. Consequently, if only a small fraction
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of this energy is able to couple to the gas it will be capable of
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regulating black hole growth and the star formation in the host galaxy
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(see Box~1).
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Whilst it is theoretically attractive to invoke AGN as a mechanism to
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regulate the rate of star formation in massive galaxies,
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this can only be credible if backed up by observational evidence. The observational
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task is to assess if and how accretion energy couples to gas and what
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resulting impact this then has on star formation in the AGN host galaxies.
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%------------------------------------------------
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\section*{Methods of energy injection by AGN}
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The energy released by black hole accretion (AGN) may be radiative
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(i.e., energetic photons) or mechanical (i.e., energetic
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particles)\cite{Cattaneo09,Ciotti10,Weinberger17}. In models, radiative energy injection is
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sometimes called ``quasar'' or ``wind'' mode and is usually associated
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with high Eddington ratios ($\gtrsim$0.01; i.e., mass accretion rates
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that are $\gtrsim$1\% of the theoretical maximum ``Eddington
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limit''). In contrast mechanical energy injection is sometimes called
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``radio'' or ``jet'' mode and is associated with low Eddington
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ratios. Early analytical models invoked galaxy-wide gas outflows, initially
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launched by accretion radiation coupling to the gas on small scales, to explain the
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observed scaling relationships between galaxies and black
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holes\cite{Silk98,King03}. In hydrodynamical simulations energy
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injection from AGN is often crudely implemented; for example, by assuming
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a small fraction of the total radiative luminosity of
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accreting black holes couples thermally to the surrounding gas, with the result of expelling
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material from the host galaxy in an outflow and suppressing star
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formation\cite{Springel05,Hopkins06}. However, recently simulations have
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incorporated more complex prescriptions for ``feeback'' by invoking
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and testing multiple modes of energy injection\cite{Ciotti10,Choi15,Weinberger17}. Observational
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constraints on the different feedback prescriptions are a critical
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test of these models.
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Based on the above, it is convenient to classify observed AGN into two broad categories: those for which their
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energetic output is predominantly radiative (radiative AGN) and those
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for which it is predominantly mechanical (mechanically-dominated
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AGN)\cite{Best12}. Radiative AGN are luminous in X-rays, optical and/or infrared
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emission (sometimes also in radio emission) and are rare among the
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galaxy population as a whole ($\lesssim$ a few percent)\cite{Aird12}. Mechanically-dominated AGN are
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usually identified through luminous radio emission\cite{Heckman14};
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however, those identified are found in the most massive systems and a
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rare subset of all galaxies which host low black hole accretion rates\cite{Best12}.
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Mechanically-dominated AGN are pre-dominantly found in the most
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massive galaxies (\allowbreak{$M_{\rm
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stellar}\gtrsim$10$^{11}$\,M$_{\odot}$}) with old stellar
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populations, at least in the local Universe, whilst radiative AGN are
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most common in galaxies with on-going star-formation and younger stellar populations at
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all cosmic epochs\cite{Hickox09,Heckman14,HernanCaballero14}. Consequently, these two
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categories of AGN may represent distinct evolutionary phases and/or
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distinct black hole accretion mechanisms depending on the host galaxy mass and
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environment\cite{Tasse08,Best12}. Therefore, when assessing the impact
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of AGN on star formation it is important to consider
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these AGN types separately. Care is especially required for AGN that are
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identified through luminous radio emission that are increasingly
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more mechanically dominated towards later cosmic times (i.e.,
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redshifts $z\lesssim1$) and are increasingly
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more radiatively dominated at early cosmic times\cite{Best14,Padovani15}.
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Although the details remain uncertain there is compelling observational
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evidence, at least in the local Universe and in the densest
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environments, that radio jets driven by mechanically-dominated AGN can
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maintain host galaxy star formation at low levels. This
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is achieved by suppressing the ability for hot gas to cool (see Box~1) and has
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been reviewed extensively in the
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literature\cite{Cattaneo09,McNamara12,Fabian12}. However, it is not
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yet fully understood what role AGN play in less dense
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environments\cite{Cattaneo09,Donoso10} or if gas needs to be ejected during
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earlier AGN episodes for these mechanically-dominated AGN to be
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effective at regulating gas cooling\cite{McCarthy11}. Furthermore, for these massive galaxies most of the galaxy and black hole
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growth occurred at earlier cosmic epochs than where this radio jet
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heating has been identified\cite{Heckman04,Thomas05}
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and it is not yet clear what quenched the earlier high rates of star
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formation in these systems\cite{Schawinski14}.
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To work towards addressing the outstanding issues raised above and to fully characterise the
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impact of AGN on star formation it is crucial to study and understand
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the role of {\em radiative} AGN. This is particularly true at early cosmic times (i.e., $z\gtrsim0.5$), when significant levels of black
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hole and galaxy growth were occurring. The remainder of this review
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will focus on the observational evidence for the impact
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of radiative AGN on star formation. As described in Box~2 a common theme throughout the
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following sections will be awareness of the relative and uncertain
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timescales of: (1) visible AGN episodes; (2) star formation episodes
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and; (3) the impact of AGN energy injection on star formation.
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\begin{figure}
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\noindent\fcolorbox{white}{colorbox}{%
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\begin{minipage}{0.5\textwidth}
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\noindent\fcolorbox{colorbox}{white}{%
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\begin{minipage}{0.973\textwidth}
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\centerline{
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\psfig{figure=box2.ps,width=0.75\textwidth,angle=90}
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}
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\end{minipage}
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}
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\vspace{0.05cm}
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\fontfamily{phv}\selectfont{\small Box~2 | Eddington ratio versus times for an example simulation
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of an AGN to illustrate variability.}
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\vspace{0.05cm}\noindent{\footnotesize As discussed in detail in \protect\cite{Hickox14} various
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observational work indicates that AGN luminosities ($L_{\rm AGN}$), in particular
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those derived from optical and/or X-ray continuum measurements that trace
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effectively {\em instantaneous} mass accretion rates, vary on orders of magnitude on times scales much
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shorter than the typical timescale of star formation episodes
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($\gtrsim$100\,Myrs). Similar results are reached by AGN simulations;
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for example, the figure presents the results of the Eddington
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Ratio (proportional to the mass accretion rate and AGN luminosity) as a function of
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time for an example hydrodynamical simulation\protect\cite{Novak11}. This model predicts that accretion
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rates can vary by several orders of magnitude on timescales of
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$\lesssim$1\,Myr. Consequently, measured AGN luminosities may provide little information on the cumulative
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energy released over the relevant timescales for star
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formation. Understanding the timescales traced by the various AGN
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luminosity indicators is crucial for our interpretation of the impact
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of AGN determined from observations. Furthermore, the relative timescales of a visible luminous AGN and the time taken for any resulting impact on the
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observed star-formation rates are very uncertain. Crucially, even when the AGN is responsible for
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enhancing or decreasing the star-formation rate in the host galaxy, it is most likely
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that the AGN luminosity will vary much more rapidly than the
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star-formation rates\cite{Zubovas13,Thacker14}. Such
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effects are important to consider when assessing the impact of AGN on
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star formation through observations.}
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\label{fig:variab}
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\end{minipage}
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}
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\end{figure}
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\section*{Observing the mechanism of energy injection by radiative
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AGN}
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A common approach towards understanding the impact of AGN on star formation is
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to search for and to characterise a mechanism by which AGN are injecting
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energy and/or momentum into the gas in their host galaxies (see
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Box~1). For example, outflows may remove gas from the host galaxy and
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have the effect of suppressing star formation. Alternatively, AGN might kinematically disturb,
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compress, shock and/or heat the gas via outflows or jets and
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consequently reduce or enhance the ability for the gas to form
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stars. It is not the purpose of this review to comprehensively cover the huge amount of observational work on outflows or jets driven by radiative AGN (see
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\cite{Veilleux05,Alexander12,Fabian12,King15}). However, below I focus on some of the
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observational work that specifically investigates the impact that these outflows
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may have on star formation.
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Radiatively-driven AGN outflows are known to be common on small spatial scales,
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i.e., close to the accretion disk, in the form of the extremely high speed winds that are identified in X-ray and ultra-violet spectroscopy
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(up to $v\approx0.1$--$0.2\times$ the speed of
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light\cite{Ganguly08,Tombesi10}). These winds have the
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potential to provide the feedback mechanism for self-regulating black hole growth
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(Box~1). Furthermore, lower velocity outflows in multiple gas phases (i.e.,
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outflows of ionised, neutral and molecular gas) have been identified using
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one-dimensional spectra of AGN host galaxies and are more likely to
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be associated with host galaxy gas\cite{Rupke05,Dunn10,Sturm11,Mullaney13}. In some cases these
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outflows are inferred to be located on 100s--1000s of parsec scales by
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applying a variety of modelling techniques, such as
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radiative transfer and photoionization models, to the information
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extracted from the spectra\cite{Sturm11,Dunn10}. What is even more pertinent is the direct
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detection of outflows on kiloparsec scales, in multiple gas phases, using spatially-resolved kinematic
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measurements\cite{Veilleux05,Maiolino12,Cicone14,Harrison14,Nesvadba16}. Only if AGN can influence gas on
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$\gtrsim$kiloparsec scales will they be able to have a significant
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impact upon the galaxy-wide star formation in their host
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galaxies. Understanding how AGN accretion disk winds couple to multi-phase gas on galaxy-wide scales
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is an on-going observational and theoretical challenge\cite{Tombesi15,Feruglio15,King15}.
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\begin{figure}
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\centerline{\psfig{figure=fig2.ps,width=0.38\textwidth,angle=90}
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}
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\fontfamily{phv}\selectfont{\small Figure~2 | Ratio of H$_{2}$ mass outflow rate to star formation rate as a
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function of AGN luminosity for low redshift ULIRGs and quasar host
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galaxies\protect\cite{Cicone14}.} {\footnotesize These measurements
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imply that molecular gas is being removed by AGN-driven outflows faster than it can be formed into stars. A representative error bar
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is shown in the top left, but this does not include the large and
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unknown uncertainty on converting CO to H$_{2}$ masses\protect\cite{Cicone14}.}
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\end{figure}
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Example evidence that AGN-driven outflows may have a
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significant impact upon star formation is that the measured mass outflow rates
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of molecular outflows in rare low redshift ultra-luminous infrared galaxies (ULIRGs) and quasar host galaxies appear to exceed the concurrent
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star-formation rates\cite{Cicone14} (see Fig.~2). Consequently star-forming material appears to be
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being removed more rapidly than it can be formed into stars in these galaxies. Similar arguments
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have also been made for more typical AGN host galaxies using a variety
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of gas tracers\cite{Liu13,Harrison14}. However, there are various difficulties involved
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with deriving the measurements and performing these analyses, with
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dramatically different results possible when applying different
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techniques, making different assumptions or when using different gas
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tracers\cite{Harrison14,Husemann16,Rupke13,GonzalezAlfonso17}. Furthermore, understanding the
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timescale on which these outflows occur is troublesome and crucial for
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the interpretation on the long term impact of these outflows\cite{GonzalezAlfonso17}. Particularly challenging is making
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these measurements beyond the local Universe, where, without excellent observations using adaptive optics or
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interferometers the spatial resolution can be comparable to, or higher
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than, the spatial extents of the outflows.
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Towards a more direct indication that AGN-driven outflows may influence
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star formation, there have been observations of
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a small number of distant luminous AGN ($z\approx1$--3) that show evidence
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for an anti-correlation between the spatial location of an ionised outflow and the location of
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narrow H$\alpha$ emission (a star-formation tracer)\cite{CanoDiaz12,Carniani16}. These results may indicate that star formation has been
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reduced in the regions of the outflow, although an alternative
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possibility is that these diffuse outflows preferentially escape away
|
|
from the dense star forming material\cite{Gabor14}. Indeed, AGN-driven
|
|
kiloparsec scale outflows are often found co-incident with high levels of on going star
|
|
formation\cite{Cicone14,Wylezalek15}. In some cases, observational papers have also reported evidence
|
|
of regions of enhanced star formation due to AGN-driven
|
|
outflows or jets, and even suppression
|
|
and enhancement working simultaneously in the same
|
|
galaxies\cite{Elbaz09,Cresci15}.
|
|
|
|
Whilst much work has focussed on the idea that AGN should be able to
|
|
evacuate galaxies of star-forming material, studies of nearby galaxies
|
|
making use of (sub)-millimetre observatories have indicated that complete evacuation of cold molecular gas from a host galaxy is not a
|
|
pre-requisite to shut down an intense star formation episode. Systems with a large molecular gas reservoir can be
|
|
forming stars less efficiently than ``typical'' galaxies with the same
|
|
molecular gas mass, potentially due to the injection of turbulence
|
|
which inhibits the formation of gravitationally bound
|
|
structures\cite{Ho05,Guillard15,French15,Alatalo15}. In some sources
|
|
AGN seem to be the most likely energy source\cite{Alatalo15,Guillard15}.
|
|
|
|
Observations have clearly identified that AGN can inject considerable
|
|
energy/momentum into their host galaxies and investigation into the
|
|
observable impact of this energy injection on star formation in
|
|
individual galaxies is on-going. However, one of the greatest on-going
|
|
challenges with these types of studies is to determine what long term impact AGN can have on their host galaxies. For example,
|
|
even if measured outflow rates are very high (e.g., Fig.~2) and/or the star formation efficiencies are very
|
|
low, it is not clear how long these episodes will last or if
|
|
re-accretion of material will trigger future star formation. Furthermore,
|
|
directly relating these episodes to the energy released by the central AGN is challenging due to the uncertain
|
|
timescales of visible AGN activity and the resulting measurable impact
|
|
(see Box~2). Insight may be obtained from {\em statistical} studies of
|
|
the star formation properties of galaxies with and without a visible AGN.
|
|
|
|
\section*{Star formation properties of radiative AGN host galaxies}
|
|
Towards assessing the impact of AGN on star formation, there has
|
|
recently been an abundance of studies investigating the star formation
|
|
rates of large samples of AGN host galaxies. Studies of purely
|
|
mechanically-dominated AGN, at least for the most radio luminous, consistently find that they reside in low star-formation rate host
|
|
galaxies\cite{Hardcastle13,Ellison16,Leslie16}. However, for radiative AGN the
|
|
conclusions have varied widely in the literature, with claims of star-formation rates that are: unrelated to AGN luminosity\cite{Mainieri11}, enhanced for the
|
|
most luminous AGN\cite{Lutz10}, inhibited for the most luminous AGN\cite{Page12} or both enhanced and reduced
|
|
depending on the wave-band used to trace the luminosity of the AGN\cite{Zinn13,Karouzos14}.
|
|
|
|
The conflicting conclusions for the star-formation rates of radiative
|
|
AGN can largely be attributed to the different samples and
|
|
approaches used. For example: (1) low numbers of the most
|
|
luminous AGN can lead to statistical fluctuations; (2) it is difficult to
|
|
convert photometric measurements into star formation rates (e.g., because of dust attenuation of optical and
|
|
ultra-violet emission and the challenges of removing the AGN contribution
|
|
to the emission at all wavelengths); (3) samples that
|
|
only consider AGN that are detected in far-infrared surveys will be biased towards higher
|
|
star-formation rates and (4) samples that are radio bright may contain
|
|
both high star-formation rate radiative AGN and low star-formation
|
|
rate mechanically dominated AGN. Another fundamental
|
|
factor to consider, is how the underlying correlations between star-formation rate and both redshift
|
|
and stellar mass are accounted for in each study. For example, a
|
|
positive correlation between star formation rate and AGN luminosity may
|
|
be driven by the fact that the most luminous AGN are hosted by the highest
|
|
stellar mass galaxies.
|
|
|
|
The studies that contain some of the largest samples of AGN host
|
|
galaxies, that have simultaneously taken into account redshift and
|
|
stellar mass and that have applied uniform techniques across their samples find
|
|
that average star-formation rates are independent of AGN
|
|
luminosity\cite{Rosario13b,Azadi15,Stanley15,Shimizu17} (Fig.~3). Does this result indicate that radiative AGN have no positive or negative impact
|
|
on galaxy-wide star formation rates? Addressing this question is non-trivial as it is extremely challenging to interpret the empirical
|
|
result. As described in Box~2 the relative timescale of an AGN to be
|
|
luminous compared to the timescale for any impact on the observed star
|
|
formation rates are very uncertain. Furthermore, some models suggest that AGN are unable to
|
|
have a direct impact upon {\em concurrent} star formation but instead the cumulative
|
|
effects of multiple AGN episodes may inhibit {\em future} star formation\cite{Gabor14}. With these aspects in mind, it clearly limits
|
|
what can be inferred from the star-formation rates of AGN without
|
|
complementary theoretical predictions.
|
|
|
|
\begin{figure}
|
|
\centerline{
|
|
\psfig{figure=fig3.ps,width=0.35\textwidth,angle=90}
|
|
}
|
|
\fontfamily{phv}\selectfont{\small Figure~3 | Mean star formation rate versus instantaneous
|
|
black hole accretion rate for a cosmological
|
|
simulation\protect\cite{McAlpine17} and versus AGN luminosity (converted from X-ray luminosities) for
|
|
observations\protect\cite{Stanley15}}. {\footnotesize The dotted lines are a linear fit to the
|
|
running means for the model (solid curves). The logarithm of the
|
|
average 30\,kpc aperture stellar masses (in
|
|
stellar mass units) of the first and last bin are labelled; the
|
|
slight increase in mean star-formation rate with increasing accretion rate is attributed to the
|
|
increasing average stellar masses. Despite effective star-formation
|
|
suppression by AGN in the model, this does not result in reduced
|
|
average star-formation rates for the highest instantaneous black hole
|
|
accretion rates (i.e., AGN luminosities).
|
|
}
|
|
\end{figure}
|
|
|
|
It is informative to obtain a prediction on the star formation rates of
|
|
AGN from a cosmological model that requires the suppression of star formation during periods of rapid
|
|
black hole growth to reproduce observable galaxy properties. For example, in agreement with
|
|
the data, the reference model of the EAGLE simulations (that includes
|
|
thermal energy injection from AGN)\cite{Schaye15} shows no evidence for
|
|
reduced average star formation rates with increasing black hole accretion
|
|
rate\cite{McAlpine17} as shown in Fig.~3. In Fig.~3: the star formation rates are
|
|
galaxy-wide, are averaged over 100\,Myrs to broadly match the
|
|
observed far-infrared measurements and are shifted up by 0.2\,dex,
|
|
to account for a systematic offset seen for all galaxies in the
|
|
simulation; the instantaneous black hole accretion rates are converted to
|
|
bolometric AGN luminosities assuming a radiative efficiency of 10\% (all details in \cite{McAlpine17}). Due to accretion rate variations
|
|
that happen more rapidly than the star formation rate variations, the
|
|
effects of star formation suppression does not result in a negative
|
|
trend in the star-formation rate versus AGN luminosity plane. Although based on a single model, this test
|
|
highlights that it is not possible to conclude a lack of impact by AGN
|
|
upon star formation based purely upon an empirical result where average star-formation rates are not reduced
|
|
for galaxies that host the most instantaneously luminous AGN.
|
|
|
|
Further insight will be gained on this topic by analysing the full distributions of star
|
|
formation rates (not just simple averages) for radiative AGN host
|
|
galaxies\cite{Symeonidis13,Azadi15,Mullaney15,Leslie16,Ellison16}
|
|
in the context of theoretical predictions. Furthermore, further work using detailed spectra to assess
|
|
the star formation {\em histories} of AGN host galaxies, in tandem with specific model predictions on
|
|
how AGN and star formation interact, will also provide insight
|
|
into the observable signatures of the impact of AGN\cite{Smethurst16,Dugan14}. However, as I will suggest in the next section investigating the massive galaxy
|
|
population as a whole, irrespective of the presence of a luminous AGN, may yield some of the most informative results on the
|
|
impact of AGN on star formation.
|
|
|
|
|
|
\section*{Star-formation rates of massive galaxies}
|
|
|
|
As already described, it is a popular and effective method in galaxy formation models to invoke AGN to
|
|
reduce the star formation of the most massive
|
|
galaxies (Fig.~1). Even the most simple ``empirical'' galaxy formation models require some process to ``quench''
|
|
the most massive galaxies\cite{Peng10}. Therefore, insight into the
|
|
impact of AGN on star formation may be gained
|
|
from investigating the star-formation rates as a function of stellar
|
|
mass. In the star-formation rate versus stellar mass plane, galaxies are generally classed into two
|
|
categories; ``star-forming galaxies'' that follow a relatively tight positive relationship
|
|
between star-formation rate and stellar mass and ``quiescent
|
|
galaxies'' that fall below this relationship, where the fraction of quiescent
|
|
galaxies increases with stellar mass\cite{Strateva01,Brinchmann04,Whitaker14}.
|
|
|
|
Recent work has shown that star-forming galaxies with low stellar masses, i.e., below $\lesssim$ few
|
|
$\times$10$^{10}$\,M$_{\odot}$, follow an almost linear relationship
|
|
between average star-formation rate and stellar mass whilst more massive
|
|
star-forming galaxies, both with and without a luminous AGN, have a shallower
|
|
slope\cite{Whitaker14,Schreiber15,Cowley16} (Fig.~4).
|
|
This reveals that the star-formation rates per unit mass are smaller in the galaxies above this stellar mass
|
|
threshold. This effect is observed to already be in place $\approx$3\,Gyrs
|
|
after the Big Bang (redshift $z\approx2$) although the exact
|
|
form of the star-formation rate versus stellar mass relationship evolves with time\cite{Brinchmann04,Whitaker14,Schreiber15}
|
|
(Fig.~4). Consequently, it is a useful exercise to investigate the role of AGN in reducing the
|
|
relative growth rates of the most massive galaxies using model
|
|
predictions.
|
|
|
|
\begin{figure}
|
|
\centerline{
|
|
\psfig{figure=fig4.ps,width=0.35\textwidth,angle=90}
|
|
}
|
|
\fontfamily{phv}\selectfont{\small Figure~4 | Mean star formation rate versus stellar mass for
|
|
observed star-forming galaxies\cite{Schreiber15} (a) and
|
|
galaxies in a cosmological model run both with and without
|
|
AGN\protect\cite{Schaye15,Crain15} (b)}. {\footnotesize More
|
|
massive galaxies form stars more rapidly; however, the highest-mass
|
|
galaxies ($M_{\rm stellar}\gtrsim10^{10}$\,M$_{\odot}$) are observed to fall below a constant scaling
|
|
relationship implying a reduction in the ability for the available baryons to be
|
|
converted into stars\protect\cite{Whitaker14,Schreiber15}. In
|
|
the model, the impact of AGN is to reduce star formation rates of
|
|
high mass galaxies as well as to reduce the overall number of
|
|
massive galaxies. Note that error bars are smaller than the data points in most cases\cite{Schreiber15}.
|
|
}
|
|
\end{figure}
|
|
|
|
Fig.~4 shows the running average star-formation
|
|
rate as a function of stellar mass of galaxies from two runs of the cosmological
|
|
hydrodynamical EAGLE simulations; the 50\,Mpc$^{3}$ box reference model (where AGN are
|
|
effective in regulating star formation) and an identical run, except
|
|
where AGN are ``turned off''\cite{Schaye15,Crain15}. Following
|
|
\cite{McAlpine17}, the star formation rates are total values and the
|
|
stellar masses are 30\,kpc aperture values (taken from the EAGLE
|
|
database\cite{McAlpine16}). Averages are only
|
|
calculated for stellar mass bins containing more than 15 galaxies. These two runs of the same
|
|
simulation provide qualitative insight into the impact of AGN on the observed star-formation rate versus stellar mass plane
|
|
(Fig.~4). In the model, it can be seen that AGN are responsible for
|
|
creating a shallower slope at the highest stellar masses as well as
|
|
reducing the overall number of massive galaxies\cite{Schaye15,Crain15}. The builders
|
|
of the Horizon-AGN hydrodynamical cosmological simulation recently performed a similar
|
|
test by running the simulation with and without AGN feedback and came to the
|
|
same conclusion: the effect of AGN is to significantly reduce the
|
|
star formation rates of massive galaxies with the magnitude of suppression increasing with
|
|
stellar mass\cite{Beckmann17}. Therefore, it appears that the observational signature of AGN suppressing star formation may be imprinted on the reduced
|
|
average star formation rates per unit stellar mass for the most massive galaxies
|
|
(Fig.~4) and {\em not} on reduced average star formation rates
|
|
for the most instantaneously luminous AGN (Fig.~3).
|
|
|
|
The results described above, and other recent work, highlight that investigating the star formation properties for populations of massive galaxies, not just
|
|
AGN-host galaxies, at multiple cosmic epochs is a critical test for different AGN feedback
|
|
prescriptions\cite{Thacker14,Bongiorno16,Bluck16,Terrazas16}.
|
|
|
|
\section*{Conclusions}
|
|
Some of the key conclusions brought up in this review are:
|
|
|
|
(1) Local mechanically-dominated AGN are energetically capable of
|
|
regulating gas cooling on large scales via radio jets in the most massive
|
|
haloes and consequently regulating star formation inside their host
|
|
galaxies. However, it is uncertain what ``quenched'' the high levels of star-formation that previously
|
|
occurred in these galaxies and what role these AGN play at early
|
|
cosmic epochs ($z\gtrsim0.5$) and in less dense environments.
|
|
|
|
(2) Radiative AGN are observed to be driving outflows in multiple phases of
|
|
gas. For many galaxies, measurements of energy and mass outflow rates
|
|
have implied that star formation could be suppressed by the removal
|
|
of star-forming material. However, the long-term
|
|
impact of these events is unclear. In a few cases AGN-driven jets
|
|
are also observed to be triggering local episodes of star
|
|
formation.
|
|
|
|
(3) The suppression or regulation of star-formation by an AGN does
|
|
not need to be the result of the complete evacuation of gas from a
|
|
galaxy. Observations of turbulence, shocks and heating by AGN jets and outflows
|
|
suggest that they are able to reduce the efficiency of converting the
|
|
available gas supply into stars without the need to remove it.
|
|
|
|
(4) The most massive galaxies ($M_{\rm stellar}\gtrsim10^{10}$\,M$_{\odot}$)
|
|
have low star formation rates per unit stellar mass across
|
|
multiple cosmic epochs. Although not conclusive,
|
|
this could be due to star formation suppression by the cumulative
|
|
effect of AGN episodes.
|
|
|
|
(5) The timescales of various feeding and feedback
|
|
processes remain uncertain. For example, AGN may no longer be visible or
|
|
luminous when the impact that they have had becomes observable. Consequently, great care must be taken when using empirical
|
|
results to draw conclusions on ``smoking gun'' evidence for or
|
|
against the impact of AGN upon star formation. Whilst we may observe
|
|
the ``smoke'' (e.g., outflows and/or reduced star formation rates) the ``gun'' (i.e., the AGN) may no longer be visible.
|
|
|
|
\section*{Future prospects}
|
|
Further work combining {\em specific} theoretical predictions with observations is
|
|
required to make significant progress in understanding the long term impact of AGN on their
|
|
host galaxies. Hydrodynamical cosmological models provide the
|
|
means to make predictions on the star-formation properties and their evolution of statistical
|
|
samples of galaxies using a variety of feedback models. In parallel to this, high-resolution
|
|
simulations can indicate what the observational signatures are for various
|
|
mechanisms of how AGN could transfer energy and
|
|
momentum into the gas in individual galaxies.
|
|
|
|
From observations, over the next five to ten years we can expect to see considerable progress
|
|
in the number of high-quality measurements to test these models. For example, the upgrade of (sub)-millimetre interferometers such as
|
|
ALMA and NOEMA will produce sensitive, high resolution observations of dust
|
|
emission and molecular gas in an increasing number of sources across
|
|
multiple cosmic epochs. Such observations will significantly reduce
|
|
the uncertainties on derived quantities such as star
|
|
formation rates and mass outflow rates. Forthcoming facilities
|
|
such as {\em JWST} (due to be launched in 2018) and 30m-class
|
|
telescopes (expected first light in the early 2020s) will enable us
|
|
measure gas inflows, outflows and host galaxy properties (such as
|
|
stellar masses and star-formation histories), to unprecedented precision for large samples of
|
|
extremely distant galaxies ($z\gg1$). Furthermore, the data from {\em
|
|
eROSITA} (due to be launched in 2018) will yield X-ray
|
|
identification of millions of AGN, which could provide a key role in testing model predictions
|
|
on large, statistical samples of AGN host galaxies.
|
|
|
|
\section*{Acknowledgements}
|
|
I acknowledge the referees for their constructive input and the Science and Technology Facilities Council through
|
|
grant code ST/L00075X/1. Thanks go to Dave Alexander, David Rosario,
|
|
Stuart McAlpine and James Mullaney for stimulating discussion. Thanks also go to the EAGLE
|
|
consortium for making the data from their simulations public.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
%----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
|
|
% REFERENCE LIST
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|
%----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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|
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